Climate change is already impacting tropical forests around the world, including through distributional shifts of forest biomes, changes in species composition, biomass, pests and diseases, and increases in forest fires (high confidence). These impacts are often compounded by non-climatic factors such as conversion of land for other uses, burning to clear land, mining, and road and infrastructure development. It is notable that, despite societal awareness and financial opportunities to restore forests (Brancalion and Chazdon, 2017), tropical forests are increasingly threatened. For instance, the conversion of tropical forests to large-scale agricultural production (mainly soybeans, oil palm, maize, cotton, livestock), is among the strongest drivers of species richness decline of both flora and fauna, thereby impacting the adaptation opportunities of ecosystems and local people to climate change (IPBES, 2018). Reducing direct and indirect drivers of deforestation and forest degradation is therefore critical to building, maintaining or enhancing the resilience of tropical forests against climate and non-climate drivers alike (high confidence).